Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ERIC Digest. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED340272.pdf

Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom

Allcoat, D., Hatchard, T., Azmat, F., Stansfield, K., Watson, D., & von Mühlenen, A. (2021). Education in the Digital Age: Learning Experience in Virtual and Mixed Realities. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(5), 795–816. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633120985120

Allcoat et al. (2021) Education in the Digital Age: Learning Experience in Virtual and Mixed Realities

Rutgers University

A method of learning in which students are actively or experientially involved in the learning process. There are different levels of active learning, based on the amount of  student involvement. Some example active learning practices are:
- Interspersing demonstrations of content
- Group discussion / projects
- Problem-solving models

Active Learning

"Active learning increases scores on concept inventories more than on course examinations."

A concept inventory aims to assess a student's conceptual understanding, through the use of carefully crafted multiple-choice questions. Each incorrect answer reflects a different type of understanding of the concept; the student's choice reveals how they understand the subject matter by choosing the option that is most in line with their current understanding. 

Active Learning Effects on Concept Inventories

Graded classroom activities have a greater impact on student performance than voluntary / "participation-only" activities, especially when applied to high-risk/underachieving students. This seems to have interesting implications when considering motivational factors in classrooms:
- Intrinsic motivation may be insufficient when students are given a choice ("“I’m not being graded on this stuff and I’ve got an organic chemistry midterm tomorrow; I’m not going to bother.)
- Extrinsic motivation may be more effective for increasing attendance and performance.

Prescribed / Enforced Educational Interventions

"Traditional" course design, based conventional lecturing and high-stakes assessments, is considered low-structured course design. On the other hand, daily and weekly active learning exercises, combined with more numerous low-stakes practice exams, are considered crucial parts of high-structured course design. It is hypothesized that high-structured courses, while being more resource intensive, produce better results in comparison to low-structured courses. Some common components of high-structured courses are:
- Socratic lecturing
- Ungraded active-learning exercises
- "Clicker" questions
- Practice exams
- Class notes summaries
- Reading quizzes
- In-class group exercises

High/Low Structured Course Design

It is a common trend in schools- not only elementary and secondary schools, but even college classrooms, adult literacy classes and corporate training courses- to fail to capitalize what is already known about how people learn. There are 5 common assumptions about how people learn and these need to be discussed in order to design effective school-based learning. 

Designing Effective Learning Environments: Cognitive Apprenticeship Models 

- Virtual Reality (VR)
- Mixed Reality (MR)
- Augmented Reality (AR)
- Extended Realities (XR)

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