Recently funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), LJI is working to confirm useful epitope region by examining neutralizing antibodies of convalescent COVID-19 patients.

current studies identifying epitopes by La Jolla
Institute for Immunology (LJI) 

"using immunoinformatics-derived peptide sequences of S protein in their vaccine formulations (https://oncogen.ro/oncogen-vaccine-design-for-coronavirus/;
https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/cambridge-research-teamworking-towards-vaccine-against-covid-19)"

current studies identifying epitopes by University of Cambridge/DIOSynVax

"Immunonomic Therapeutics/EpiVax/PharmaJet are leveraging in silico T-cell epitope prediction72. The use of B-cells epitopes appears practical because of its universality compared to the HLA-restricted T-cell specific vaccines."

current studies identifying epitopes by Immunonomic Therapeutics/EpiVax/PharmaJet

- La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI) 
- University of Cambridge/DIOSynVax
- Immunonomic Therapeutics/EpiVax/PharmaJet

Smith College

The majority of COVID-19 vaccine candidates target the spike protein and receptor-binding domain of the virus. This is because the spike protein binds to the ACE2 receptor on the surface of host cells.
Other structural antigens targeted are the envelope, membrane, and nucleocapsid proteins of the virus with studies identifying B and T epitopes being done currently.

Vaccine antigen selection and design

Protein-based vaccines inject coronavirus proteins directly into the body to stimulate an immune response. Alternatively, fragments of proteins or protein shells that mimic the coronavirus' outer coat is also being tested. 

Protein Subunit and Virus-Like Particle Vaccines for COVID-19

Shin, M.D., Shukla, S., Chung, Y.H. et al. COVID-19 vaccine development and a potential nanomaterial path forward. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 646–655 (2020). doi: 10.1038/s41565-020-0737-y

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-0737-y

COVID-19 vaccine development and a potential
nanomaterial path forward

These are two methods of processing and presenting antigens to human body.

Nanocarriers need to be degraded for encapsulated antigens to trigger cellular immune response, while the surface displayed antigens primarily lead to humoral immune response. 

encapsulated antigen vs surface displayed antigens

Protein-Based Vaccines in Clinical Trials for COVID-19

Nanomaterials have emerged as promising tools to amplify or suppress host's immune response. By acting as adjuvants added to vaccines for COVID-19, engineered nanomaterials can aid subjects with impaired immune system, such as the elderly, and reduce the amount of vaccine protein production and injection. 


Intranasal delivery of polymer-encapsulated antigen triggers a strong immune response, and the success of vaccination depends on the appropriate type of polymer in combination with the antigen. Similarly, researchers have developed lipid and lipid-based NPs as delivery platforms for mRNAs or siRNAs to enable the synthesis of key viral proteins for vaccination (for example, Moderna’s mRNA-1273/NCT04283461 vaccine) or to inactivate critical viral target genes, respectively. 


Considering the possibility of random viral mutations that may alter the antigen shape, functionalizing nanomaterials with a wide number of molecules at the same time to target the virus, or motifs that are specific for pathogens, will increase the efficiency of vaccines and their ability to prevent viral infection.


There are ongoing screenings and classifications of various nanomaterials based on their immunomodulatory properties and cytotoxicity levels. Developing an adjuvant for clinical use requires Phase III randomized trials, which could take several years.


Nanomaterial-based Immune Modulation for SARS-CoV-2

Information gained from studies on the immune responses and vaccine development for related betacoronaviruses, such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, provides insight into the immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 and guides the development of COVID-19 vaccines.

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