A blanket term used to describe the various sub-process that underlie an individual's ability to direct internal awareness of various external stimuli. Examples include "alerting" (becoming aware of stimuli entering one's conscious attention), "conflict monitoring" (mitigating disctraction), and "sustained attention" (the ability to maintain singular focus for an extended period of time).

Attention in Mindfulness

A tendency resulting from conditioning which lowers an individual's neural response to a stimulus if the stimulus as been encountered several times. EEG studies of advanced meditators show a decrease in habituated neural response to repetitive clicking sounds. This phenomenon recalls the Buddhist concept of "Beginner's Mind," which refers to an attitude of attentional engagement with openness, eagerness, and minimal preconceived bias.

Habituation in Mindfulness

Research methods concerning the neurobiology of mindfulness follow the standard scientific model, incorporating a hypothesis, an experimental group, and a control group. Empirical evidence is commonly collected in the form of brain scans via one or more methods including fMRI, PET, and EEG. Such experiments began in the 1960's and have delivered valuable insight into long-term and short-term effects of mindfulness-based practice, but these advanced methods are not infallible. Notable inconsistencies exist within the data likely due to the wide range of mindfulness styles studied as well as a bias to study more experienced practitioners. Data suggests that researchers would benefit from distinguishing the type of mindfulness practice being studied as well as the intent of that practice. 

Research Methods - Neurobiology of Mindfulness

Measurable changes that occur during the active state of meditation - in other words, short term effects such as stress reduction and relaxation. Further study may yield clinical applications in navigating painful memories or coping with impulsive emotional outbursts. 

State Effects in Mindfulness

Measurable changes that occur gradually over extended periods of routine mindfulness practice. In other words, long-term effects such as increased focus, lower levels of impusivity, and a greater sense of well-being. Further study may yield clinical applications for individuals with chronic conditions such as depression and anxiety.

Trait-like Effects in Mindfulness

Mindfulness meditation  may  effect the cognitive processes of enhanced self-regulation, including attention control, emotion regulation and self-awareness.  Scientists have discovered changes in brain structure related to mindfulness meditation in brain regions that control these cognitive processes.

Neuroscience of Mindfulness Meditation

The study of Dispositional Mindfulness within the lens of Neurobiology. In more specific terms, figuring out what brain functions correspond to the activation of Dispositional Mindfulness.

The Neurobiology of Dispositional Mindfulness

The study of Intentional Mindfulness within the lens of Neurobiology. In other words, figuring out what brain functions correspond to the experience of Intentional Mindfulness. 

The Neurobiology of Intentional Mindfulness

A distinct line of inquiry with the goal of understanding which systems of the brain are activated during mindfulness practice to determine the effects that both short and long-term practice has on brain function and structure.

Arizona State University

Villanova University

Georgetown University

Mindfulness-based interventions for addiction are  thought to work upon the dysregulation of cognitive processes caused by substance abuse. The usage of mindfulness techniques such as body scan, mindful breathing, and informal mindfulness can work upon certain biological and behavioral mechanisms involved in addiction.  

Therapeutic Mechanisms of Mindfulness as a Treatment for Addiction

Disciplines that Intersect with Mindfulness

The scientific field of study of nervous system function and development. The human nervous system is comprised of the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral  (nerves and ganglia branching from brain and spinal cord) nervous systems. These are referred to as the CNS and PNS, respectively.

Neuroscience (Neurobiology)

Fabrizio, D. (ed.). (2009). Clinical handbook of mindfulness. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09593-6

Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness

The restructuring-reward hypothesis postulates that mindfulness decreases the saliency of addictive behavior by encouraging the mind to value things that were rewarding pre-addiction (as opposed to drugs). 

Restructuring Reward Hypothesis

There is a strong association between stress and addiction. Therefore mindfulness-based interventions often focus on targeting stress reactivity in order to improve symptoms related to addictive behaviors. 

Stress Reactivity

There are many different techniques one can use during formal meditation, including:

- Body scan
- Yoga
- Breath awareness
- Open Monitoring

Formal Meditation Skills

Trait mindfulness is centered around the idea of living in the present moment. It emphasizes living a nonjudgemental life, and it can also refer to the level of mindfulness experienced by a person during everyday activities. 

Trait/Dispositional Mindfulness

COVID-19 patients have shown symptoms of direct and indirect neurological effects, from changes in taste and smell, to immunologic factors in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF).  It is unknown whether these phenomena are the result of neurological damage, of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and/or of indirect effects of the immune response. Furthermore, studies in mice have shown that neurons are susceptible to infection, suggesting that cells of the CNS may contribute to the deteriorating breathing and respiratory function of COVID-19 patients. The image below is an early hypothesized mechanism of viral entry through nasal and oral mucosa cells, though there is not yet any evidence to support this hypothesis.

Effects of COVID-19 on the Central Nervous System

Even in the absence of typical respiratory symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath, various patients diagnosed with COVID-19 have presented neurological symptoms, such as:

- acute cerebrovascular diseases

- impaired consciousness

-  skeletal muscle injury

- encephalopathy (symptoms: ischemic stroke)

- loss of smell (anosmia) and taste (ageusia)

- stroke

- cranial nerve deficits

- delirium

- meningitis

- paralysis

- seizures

- neuroinflammatory syndromes

- high pressure CSF

- muscle stiffness

The list below includes less-common neurological symptoms of COVID-19:
- Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS)
- Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)

Neurological symptoms Presented in COVID-19 Patients

The study of the physiological basis for cognition.

Cognitive Neuroscience

- Brain
- Neurons
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Neurological diseases
- Central nervous system (CNS)

Focuses of neuroscience (neurobiology) 

An intersection between psychology, neuroscience and economics that studies how brain activation corresponds with decisions of gains and losses.

Neuroeconomics

As the relapse prevention model discusses, many individuals recovering from addiction return to their behavior at some point during/after treatment. Researchers have begun to look at this idea of relapse and relapse prevention from a neuroscience perspective. This perspective could help further the understanding of why, on a brain level, individuals relapse and how we could possibly help. There is not a large consensus yet, but the research is looking at many factors including pathways, styles, and stages of recovery, as well as the possibility of reversing or diminishing the brain dysregulation that results from addiction.

Neuroscience approach to relapse and relapse prevention

The study of behavior, emotion, and cognition and how they relate to brain function

Neuropsychology

This looks at how behavior and the environment are affecting the neural development of humans through their lifetime.

Behavioral Neuroscience

Discipline that is concerned with hormonal development, its interaction with the nervous system, its secretion and associated physiological and behavioral effects.

Neuroendocrinology

The study of Emotion Regulation within the lens of Neurobiology. More specifically, understanding what brain functions correspond to Emotion Regulation. 

The Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation

Biopsychology, also known as biological psychology, is a subfield of psychology that examines the influence of biological processes on behavior. It typically focuses on the immediate causes of behavior rooted in the physiology of an organism, with a primary emphasis on the nervous system's structure and function. This field is highly interdisciplinary, drawing on expertise from researchers with backgrounds in biology, medicine, physiology, and chemistry, and is considered a key component within the broader field of neuroscience.

Biopsychology (Biological Psychology)

A human's nervous system is in charge of managing our cognitions, movements, and responses. It is comprised of billions of neurons, glial cells, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. 

Nervous System

A person accidentally touches a hot surface and immediately withdraws their hand. Which of the following best analyzes the roles of the two major divisions of the nervous system in this reflex action?

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